VI Operating Frequencies and BrainWave.

In a previous post I covered the radiowave part of the spectrum and how the frequency of a device might affect its realistic performance. A question that may have occurred to some readers is what frequency range do THS’ virtual implants (VI) work at? This is of particular interest for the Virtual Interface Implant (VII), which is nested inside the brain.

Such no operating wavelength is specified in any of the books I have read, and radio is often treated in a rather arbitrary fashion in sci-fi and general fiction, as I have discussed elsewhere. Some additional information in other books points us in a possibly fruitful direction. Broken Dreams 3e p.23 tells us “a standard AR signal, if not jammed, can typically be detected at a range of 1 mile.” Cities of the Edge 4e p.25-26 details how most of the Web traffic is via fibre-optic cables. A VI signal usually need only reach the transceivers in the nearest wall. It can also be deduced that the high-level of information being exchanged will require higher frequencies that offer better bandwidth. On the other hand, use of centimetre and millimetre bands is unlikely, since these use frequencies also utilized by microwave ovens and MADS (THS 3e p.156, 4e p.62-3) riot control. Having a device using these bands next to, or within, your brain does not seem prudent! THS 3e p.64 describes brain implants as “tiny-usually pill-sized or smaller.” Logically, VIIs, implant communicators and similar devices will need antenna of some form, but the space inside the head for these will be limited. How the VII is powered is never discussed. Replacing energy cells would not be practical. Power may be metabolic (ATP) or by wireless recharging. Whatever the system, it is probably relatively low power. Excessive heat production within the brain would need to be avoided.

Juggling all this together leads me to the conclusion that VIIs utilize UHF transmission. A range of about a mile sounds credible for a low power UHF transmission using a short aerial. A short range actually facilitates an environment where there are multiple other users. UHF works well within building interiors. UHF is the frequency used for early 21st century mobile phones. It is reasonable to assume that as use of these devices declined, the frequencies would be assigned to VI applications.

Does this mean anything in game terms? The GM and players should keep the “1 mile” range in mind. This will have little effect in a Fourth or Fifth Wave city where there are ample transceivers. Place the player out in the boonies and this becomes significant! One mile is the transmitting range. The implant may still be able to receive more powerful signals from greater distances. You may know where you are from GPS signals, but be unable to call for help. There is little point in recording a slink of climbing a mountain unless you have an external device that can boost the signal to distant receivers. Perhaps the slink is recorded instead, but for the slink to be available they have to get out alive, be rescued or their body recovered. That might be a profitable but dangerous mission. If a file you need is on a data-cube, and your AI on a brain implant, some form of hardware will be needed to read the cube and transmit the data to the implant.

Potentially, wearable devices might also utilize longer wavelengths, probably VHF. This depends on the size of the device and the practicality of using longer and/or telescopic antenna systems. This applies to wearables such as VIG and DVI (THS 3e p.142) but also to portable devices such as the hand-held/ palmscreen and book computer/ bookscreen (Broken Dreams 3e p.130). Such devices can usually read cubes or wafers without additional equipment.

BrainWave.

“BrainWave” is an implant first encountered in 2097. Since then the technology has been widely copied.

The BrainWave is a brain implant that when triggered, emits a powerful field of centimetre-band microwave energy. This rapidly cooks the surrounding brain tissue, killing the implantee and rendering recovery of memories by brainpeel impractical. The triggering of a BrainWave is usually accompanied by wiping of a VII’s memory banks.

The BrainWave is the successor to the 20th century agent’s suicide capsule. The agent may not know they have a BrainWave implant. The BrainWave may be triggered by the agent’s companion AI when capture or interrogation seems certain, or by remote signal.

Going Blank.

“Ze’s a blank! Ze’s a blank!

Ze has no social rank!

Cops will throw hir in the tank!

For living like a crank!”

“Ballad of a Blank”, Corey Godzilla.

Blanks are also known as “nullos” or “the zeroed”. A blank cannot be found in official records. A blank does not legally exist. Typically they minimize their Web footprint.

Blanks are often confused with fringers or Isolates; the terms are often incorrectly used interchangeably. Blanks often live with fringers or Isolates, but very few fringers or Isolates are actually blanks.

People have various reasons for going blank. Some a criminals, and may be dangerous. Others are paranoids, runaways, discontents, drop-outs, hermits, minimalists, Isolates, technophobes or eccentrics. Contrary to popular belief and fiction, very few blanks are secret agents. Living as a blank poses too many restrictions to movement for an effective covert operation.

Famously, a number of artists have gone blank, often preceded by considerable publicity. Typically this is intended as a sabbatical. Many have returned to society after a period of time, claiming to be drawing on their experiences for their subsequent creations. Certain individuals have never been heard of again, and their fate is unknown. Several are known to have intended their life as a blank to be only temporary.

Becoming fully blank is not easy. Ideally they have arranged for the deletion of any records that may be used to identify them. Fifth and Fourth Wave encryption systems make this very difficult, as do multiple backups across the Web and in air-gap facilities. In some societies there may also be physical records that will need to be destroyed or stolen. Going fully blank takes the right connections and lots of money. Remaining wealth my be converted into a more physical form. It is a popular meme that blanks have secret hoards of precious metals and gems. In fact,a hoard may be more practical items such as medicine, rations and ammunition.

Some blanks will have cosmetic surgery to change their appearance, race or even their gender. Fingerprints may be removed or reconfigured. Virtual Interface Implants (VII) are usually removed, or at least deactivated. Very rarely, an implant may be kept but air-gapped so it can still run an AI, but cannot connect to the Web or other systems. Such units may be needed for tasks such as language translation or recognition of useful and harmful plants. Typically blanks lack Web or VI-based abilities, memes, skills and advantages. Pop-culture references will be lost on them, for example. Likely capabilities for blanks include local area knowledge, stealth, survival and scrounging.

It is possible to be born blank. Children born outside the mainstream medical system may not be officially registered. Some individuals in rural or wilderness areas may be blank without knowing it. Humans who become blanks in this manner may not take the “Genefixed” advantage nor upgrades, unless a clone of a genefixed or upgrade. Runaway bioroids that pose as humans may be effectively blanks.

Some individuals go blank simply by disconnecting from the Web, adopting a new name and changing location. They stay blank by avoiding anything that may identify them or draw official attention. Assuming a new nationality may hinder authorities from locating the correct records.

Living as a blank is difficult in a world where nearly everything involves the Web or a computer. “Always paying cash” is problematic in a world where transactions are usually virtual and very few physical coins and banknotes actually exist. Blanks often barter or use alternate mediums such as casino chips. Avoiding surveillance is another concern for blanks, especially in societies where most people have VII or wearables. Blanks avoid areas where such devices and cameras are common. Some will try to avoid being directly viewed by anyone who may have an implant. Some blanks choose to live in rural or wilderness areas or within certain types of Isolate communities. More live in abandoned buildings in decivilized urban areas, often with fringer communities.

Fifth and Fourth Wave societies contain a small number of blanks. Blanks are more common in Third Wave societies, particularly those in transitional developing societies. Going blank is often a reaction to the technological and social changes the society is undergoing. Becoming and living as a blank is generally easier in such conditions since surveillance and record infrastructures may not yet be as fully developed as in Fifth and Fourth Wave communities.

Legal status of blanks and how they are treated by authority varies. Some officially “don’t exist”. In some countries it is felt that ignorance of true identity does not invalidate an individual’s basic human/ parahuman rights. In others, being a “non-person” may result in the blank being subject to various petty or major abuses. Blanks live on the edge of the law, if not outside it, so it is usually easy to find some crime to charge a blank for. Likely charges include vagrancy, squatting, trespass, tax-evasion and lack of legal identification. In some societies it is illegal to not have an electronic bank account. Some blanks are wanted criminals, so authorities are often keen to establish a blank’s actual identity.

For the population in general reactions to blanks range from pity to suspicion and fear.

Note: The above section was written in a THS Earth-based context. I believe I first encountered the idea and term “blank” in an episode of “Max Headroom”. The concept can be applied to various other science fiction or modern scenarios. The alternate term “nullo” was taken from GURPS Cyberworld.

Gauzi: The Aussie Gun.

Australia in 2100 has very restrictive gun laws (CR 5). This has done very little to curb criminal use of firearms. Several organized crime groups in Australia illegally manufacture firearms. Black market minifacs may be located in remote regions or within urban areas. Some groups use pirated designs, blueprints often acquired from the TSA Web or Trojan Mafia. Original designs are also manufactured. Appealing to patriotic and nostalgic memes, copies of the Owen, Austen and Lithgow F1 submachine guns in 9mm MAX are available. In addition to illegally manufactured weapons, many guns of various types are also smuggled into the country.

Such weapons are not just purchased by career criminals. Australia has many communities located in remote regions. Their objections to Australia’s gun prohibition laws are both ideological and practical. Many communities, many of them Isolates, do not want to have to rely on police for protection. Many communities are so remote that any call for help may take hours to be answered.

In remote areas, and some urban area too, bows and crossbows are used. Being Australia, use of woomera (atlatl) or war boomerangs is not unknown either. Firearms acquired by illegal means will be kept well hidden until really needed.

Officially, it is grudgingly admitted that some citizens may possibly have a need for firearms. With considerable trouble and red-tape a citizen may be permitted to own a “gauzi”. For most Aussies, this is the only model of gun they may ever legally own. Few permits are ever issued to urban dwellers. Being approved for ownership may be a little easier if the user agrees to security features such as locator-tags, and recognition pads.

The gauzi is an unusual weapon, looking like a 19th century rifle but using modern technology. It is a single-shot gauss-gun, the breech being opened by a lever that also serves as the trigger guard. The safety resembles a hammer to give a simple, easy to understand mechanism. When the hammer is in safe position the sights are obscured. After firing the hammer drops back to the safe position. It cannot be set to fire while the breech is open. A C cell is installed in the stock and powers the gun’s systems. The 18mm calibre barrel can accommodate a variety of loads. The projectile is suspended in a magnetic field and does not come into contact with the barrel walls. The gauzi will actually fire any object that can fit the bore and is ferrous. With a container of steel shot it serves as a shotgun. Several weights of spitzer bullet make the gauzi a small game or medium game rifle. Heavy, large calibre slugs provide some capability against dangerous animals. Explosive rounds and other varieties of military ammunition are not available. Because of the requirement for metallic content, producing less-lethal ammunition types for the gauzi is problematic. Purchasing or storing large quantities may prompt official investigation. The gauzi has a two-foot long barrel. Unlike that of a conventional firearm, the barrel cannot be shortened to make the gauzi more concealable. Cutting the barrel destroys the electromagnetic accelerator system. Cutting off the stock removes the power supply. The Australian government prefers to keep the number of gauzis in circulation low, so the design has a modular sighting system, allowing a single weapon to be used in a variety of roles. A HUD sight is fitted as standard.

Each gauzi is “made on demand” at a minifac. Some users opt for decorative finishes and ornate furniture. If you are only going to own one gun, might as well have one that you can be proud of. Other examples are plain utilitarian.

Interstellar Travel: Considering the Unthinkable.

The majority of space science fiction is based on an assumption: Interstellar travel is possible. Either a way to travel faster than light is possible, or there is a way to side-step the necessity by taking a short-cut, usually through another dimension.

Like many sci-fi fans, I hope we do reach the stars. But if I am brutally honest, to the best of my knowledge, there is currently no evidence that interstellar travel is possible. Wormholes and tachyons remain theoretical. Quantum tunnelling has been observed, but there is no evidence that a human or starship can do the same as a sub-atomic particle. 

Suppose practical interstellar travel is not possible? Rather than a great ocean, the galaxy is really closer to a desert of tiny puddles. Humans are minnows in that puddle. They can thrive and occupy the whole puddle, or shelter below a familiar weed, but they cannot leave the puddle, and nothing can cross the desert from another puddle.

This may be the solution to the “Fermi Paradox”. We cannot detect interstellar visitors or civilizations for the simple reason that they cannot exist. 

There remains “impractical” interstellar travel. We could reach some of the neighbouring star systems using “slowboats”. if we are willing to accept voyages of several years duration. Hibernation or generation ships may be needed. By these means, human colonies around other stars would be possible, but very little interaction between them would be practical. A distress call from a colony might take more than a decade to receive an answer. Shipping people to the colonies would have minimal effect on any population problems the Solar system is likely to have.

We could use unmanned probes to explore other systems, although we may not hear from then until a future generation of scientists. Many may challenge the expense of exploring worlds that we can never be visited.

In most near-future sci-fi interstellar travel is not an option, but what happens if this never changes? In a few thousand years, how will humanity fare if it cannot expand outside its home star system? What if it can only utilize the finite space of the solar system? Eight(-ish) planets and various moons and lesser bodies. Some of the Rho-class planets and moons may be capable of being terraformed. For environments that cannot be adapted, ingenious solutions may be needed. Several science fiction novels have track-mounted communities on Mercury that constantly move to stay in the twilight band. Humans themselves may be adapted to certain environments, such a oceans or free-fall. A future solar system may have several sub-species, or even several distinct species of humanity.

Life may be trapped in its star system of origin, but that does not mean that there is no life around other stars. Perhaps we will one day make contact with other civilizations. We cannot visit each other, but may be able to correspond, even if there are years between responses. There may be practical problems with sending a coherent transmission over multiple light years. If so, instead, unmanned “courier” craft might be exchanged. Such vessels would be one-way only, so are able to expend all their fuel in reaching a high sub-light velocity. They can also utilize propulsion systems and acceleration rates that would have been detrimental to a crew. On reaching their destination system, such couriers would broadcast the data they were carrying. Rather than expending energy decelerating (which might have required weeks or even months) couriers would be programmed to safely fall into the systems’ sun(s). Theoretically a courier could carry physical objects between systems, but this adds the complication of decelerating the “gift package” at its destination.

GURPS Terradyne.

Version 1.2

Before GURPS Transhuman Space (THS), there was GURPS (Space) Terradyne.

Terradyne was written in 1991, so it is interesting to observe how the period it was written in has influenced the future depicted. For example, the USSR still exists on the Earth of Terradyne, although the book does predict a number of republics will have seceded, and problems with ethnic unrest.

The most obvious difference with Transhuman Space is much less biotech. Genetic engineering is used, but it is mainly for food crops or terraforming organisms. The latter are fungi, lichens, algae and microbes. There are bionics, but no biomods; robots, but no bioroids.

Terradyne is more dystopian than Transhuman Space, but also a somewhat more realistic, grittier hard sci-fi setting. Terradyne is set in 2120, rather than the 2100 of THS. Tech-level of Terradyne is lower than THS, however. Off-world, and the more prosperous nations or social groups of Earth are (early)TL8, but many Earth nations are TL7, with some communities as low as TL6, TL5 or even TL2. This is using the Classic/3e Tech-level scale, not the 4e. On the Classic/3e scale THS was high TL9 with TL10 biotech (GURPS THS 3e p.140).

Some of the technology later seen in THS sourcebooks is present in Terradyne. Some of the predictions that miss are rather charming. The book suggests use of the web will be charged by the minute, implying much less constant use of it is made than in THS or IRL. For monetary transactions people carry a keypad device resembling a small calculator.

“Have you ever ridden a conveyor strip before?” Gaines inquired. “It’s quite simple. Just remember to face against the motion of the strip as you get on.”

“The Roads Must Roll” by Robert Heinlein.

Unlike THS, slidewalks are a common means of travel in the cities of the UPOE and Terradyne. The slidewalks of fiction (and some real world examples), use several parallel strips, each moving two to three yards per second faster than its neighbour. By this means high speed slidewalks are boarded. The real world ThyssenKrupp Express Walkway is composed of pallets that can vary their individual speed. Rules for slidewalks are given in GURPS Ultra-tech 4e p.222. I also like the idea of cable cars being used within the craters of the Moon.

Inevitably, some of the scientific facts in the book are out of date. Still up for grabs in 2120 is a massive prize for finding water on the Moon. We now know there is quite a lot up there!

It is a standard trope in near-future sci-fi for big corporations to own virtually everything. Economically, this seems somewhat unrealistic and impractical. Terradyne has a more credible structure, and revolves around the interaction of two large organizations, only one of which is a corporation.

The United Peoples of Earth (UPOE) is a league of nations organization that is effectively the world government. It has an Assembly of Nations, where each member nation has one representative, and a Peoples’ Assembly where each nation has a vote for every 20 million of population, or part thereof. The latter system does not provide much of an incentive for nations to curb their population growth!

Terradyne is an off-world corporation based in Luna City. Its mission is the colonization and exploitation of the rest of the solar system. Currently its primary project is the terraforming of Mars. To this end, it has taken the bold but controversial action of crashing Saturn’s moon, Phoebe, into Mars. This impact has created several deep oceans and seas, and a thick, but as yet unbreathable, Martian atmosphere. Terradyne employs 90% of off-world personnel and sees itself as a de facto nation. Rather than raising money by taxing its population it does so by the sale of exports. Terradyne also owns and operates the solar power satellites that provide a significant proportion of Earth’s energy needs.

An interesting dynamic exists between these two organizations. The UPOE would like to bring Terradyne to heel, but is dependent on Terradyne for energy and high-tech goods, many of which can only be made in orbit. Terradyne, on the other hand, resents the UPOE’s attempts to control and influence it, but needs the population of Earth as a market. 

“The Mall in Washington, D.C. is flooded and the government has moved to higher ground. Tourists can visit the Oval Office and the second floor of the old Capitol Building by boat.

New York: City was also hit hard. About 20% of Manhattan is under the Atlantic, including the Upper West Side to Amsterdam Avenue, and nearly all of the East Village.”
 

Nations remain politically significant. The USA is a major food producer and has Earth’s largest armed forces. It would very much like to regain its status as a world leader but it is beset by considerable social problems and unrest. The poverty gap remains a problem, with many Americans living at TL6 even within TL8 cities. China is a major player on the world stage, but somewhat held back by its antipathy to Terradyne. Japan is significant economically, but hindered in some circles by its close association with Terradyne. Not all the nations of the world are members of the UPOE. There are also a number of Earth-based corporations and zaibatsu that wield considerable political power.

The book includes some material that may be useful for THS and similar scenarios. Rules for man-powered flight under lunar gravitry are on page 57. “Mayflies” I have dealt with in a previous blog.

GURPS Terradyne uses a different armory to THS. TL8 weapons may be drawn for GURPS Space 2e, Ultra-Tech 3e, and presumably, Ultra-Tech 2, Cyberpunk and Cyberworld 3e. Much of the technology, including weapons, is TL7 so GURPS High-Tech may contribute many items. Firearms of any kind are very strictly controlled in domed and pressurized environments such as on Mars and the Moon. This may lead to characters or NPCs making greater use of melee weapons, LLW or martial arts. Chemical slug-throwers are widely used on Earth and on Mars outside of the domes. Laser pistols and rifles are used in the colonies, but may be encountered on Earth too. Gyrocs are another armament weapon option, although civilians may be unable to legally use certain ammunition types. Military, police, paramilitaries, militia, mercenaries and criminals may have access to such weapons as military lasers, gauss-needlers, grenades, missiles, rocket launchers and needle guns. On Earth most military units will be TL7, with elite, special forces or well-funded units having better access to TL8 gear. In areas such as the Kasmir, one might encounter infantry platoons mainly armed with TL7 rifles, but having an infantry support laser (UT-2 3e, p.55) and/or automatic rocket launcher (gyroc: UT3e p.47) and an electromag grenade launcher or mortar (UT 3e p.45-46) as their main firepower. The officers would probably carry heavy laser pistols as a sidearms.

I have a few minor gripes about the book. The description of the Lowell space station is rather confused: The hub shifts position to alter spin rate and vary the perceived gravity, but won’t this increase the spin rate of the other end module? Is only one module used for accommodation? The role of the Lowells is described under the entry for UCLA Cycler on this page.(Cyclers are also mentioned on THS 3e p.13) Page 111 of the Terradyne Sourcebook talks about “the lone combat soldier” where clearly the intended meaning was “the individual”. Theodore Sturgeon did not write “The Thing”! All of the movies were based on “Who Goes There?” by John W. Campbell Jr. Anthrax is a bacterium, so it is unlikely a virus (p.125) would be developed from it. Ranges for communicators are typically unrealistic. A microwave communicator will only have 10,000 mile range if it has line of sight.

The book could have used a map of the terraformed Mars. One can be found here, and also includes the artist’s take on the Terradyne Earth and Moon too. Personally, I think Israel would be in the UPOE, but would probably have a rough time with the Arab and Islamic voting blocks. I do like the idea of the Alawatie Christian Republic appearing in the Middle East. One issue I have with this map is the inclusion of space elevators. The tech-level of Terradyne makes it seem unlikely that the necessary high-tech materials for such constructions would be available. Additionally, Terradyne (the company) relies heavily on that it can ship goods down the gravity well to Earth much more cheaply and easily than materials can be moved up to orbit. Even if technically possible, building space elevators would be counter to Terradyne’s interests.

Biomod: Tabi-Feet.

“It’s OK, you can look. I call them my tabi-feet!

My first half-century or so was not kind to my feet. Fallen arches, torn tendons, all sorts of stuff. When I got them fixed, I had this done as well. The original bones are still in there, but now the four lesser toes share one lump of flesh. I have a big toe and an even bigger toe! I was always banging or catching my little toe on things. That is no longer a problem!

There are different options, but I went for the single big toenail, or as I call it, “the hoof”! So big toenail, and even bigger toenail.

This is cool: Watch. Retractable climbing claws! Three of them under each bigger toenail.”

The tabi-feet biomod encloses the bones of the four lesser toes in a single larger toe. It is essentially a quirk, but may evoke positive or negative reactions from some. In superstitious communities the owner may be accused of having cloven hooves!

Jet Seat: The Fast Route Home

“I will leave now. There is nothing you can do to stop me. There are three remaining escape rigs, and five of you. I imagine you have much to discuss!”

Another neat idea from vintage Look and Learn, in this case from 5th June 1971.

Not much use for the military of the THS-verse, where nearly all combat aircraft are crewed by infomorphs. This is more likely the “must-have” for private jets or light aircraft. Weight penalties mean there are unlikely to be more than a handful on larger passenger aircraft. Think of the escape pod the President uses on Air Force One in “Escape from New York”

Seat gun: extra.

The Channel Bridge.

While I have used it a couple of times, I find the Channel Tunnel a little disappointing. I realize that this dates back to my childhood, when I had a couple of copies of a magazine called “Look and Learn”. In two of these were the second and third parts of a three-part article about life in 2001. The author tells us:

“In 2001 we will probably not have to use the cross-channel ferries at all. There will be at least one tunnel built under the channel, and perhaps more. And at the narrowest crossing point, between Calais and Dover, there will probably be a huge bridge. This will be of the suspension type. At both Calais and Dover tall towers will be built, and long cables strung between them across the channel width. The actual bridge will hang from this cable...These towers will certainly be the tallest building in Europe, and we will be able to travel up to their "summits" in lifts, and eat a meal in a glassed-in restaurant, watching the busy channel below us. ”

Look and Learn. 28th August 1971.

Perhaps, by the time of THS, such a bridge will have been built to supplement the (by then) several channel tunnels. Certainly it will need advanced technology materials!

The bridge will probably handle both road and rail traffic, suspended mono-rails running along the underside. There may even be a high-speed vactrain as a travel option. Towers that high will serve other purposes other than as the locations of restaurants. They are likely to mount radar, radio relays, and serve as docking points for airships. Whole communities may exist within the towers. Like many transition points, they will be nexuses of intrigue and enterprise. For French cuisine, visit Pascal’s, La Papillon or Le Haut Ciel, and for English classics, The Ale House or Blumenthal’s.

No visit to Europe in 2100 will be complete without visiting the Channel Bridge!

Grenade Launchers: The Spigots.

“Rifle grenades are regarded as the rifleman’s most reliable weapon against tanks, pill boxes, and exposed enemy personnel. At first, they may seem to be too small to d much damage, but their power is far greater than appearances would lead us to believe.”

Guidebook for Marines, Chapter 20, p.257 1951

Spigot-launched rifle grenades are a little bit better known than cup and rod grenades. Very occasionally they appear in movies. The best examples I can think of are in “Battle of the Bulge” and “From Russia With Love”.

The principle of a spigot launcher is very simple. Rather than fitting down a barrel the projectile has a tube that fits over the outside of the barrel. I have not encountered any examples of spigot launchers being used on rifles in the First World War. The principle was known at this time, since the Granatenwerfer 16 was an example of a spigot mortar.

When spigot grenades were introduced the rifles they were intended to be used with were not entirely suitable. Launching required an unobstructed length of barrel and a service rifle has structures such as bayonet lugs, foresights and woodwork in the way. The spigot launcher was therefore a length of tube that extended the barrel.

A number of spigot launchers for rifle grenades were in use in the Second World War.

The German example represents a very simple model of spigot launcher. It attaches using the bayonet lug and has a foresight for aiming grenades. The only projectile used was a 60mm hollow-charge anti-tank grenade.

The Japanese also made use of a spigot launcher. Two types of projectile were used. The fragmentation bomb was a Type.91 hand grenade with a tail unit screwed on. The smoke screening bomb was a dedicated rifle grenade weighing 1.3 lb and using HC composition.

The British produced a spigot launcher for the No.4 rifle. Like many designs it had a flip up ladder sight. This was marked in increments of 25 yd from 25 to 100. The No.85 51mm anti-tank grenade (1.26lb) externally resembles the M9A1. The No.87 was a WP rifle grenade (1.25 lb). Post war, this launcher could also use the No.94 Energa anti-tank grenade. One man per platoon was issued the Energa as a replacement for the PIAT.

The US had four models of 22mm spigot launcher in use during World War Two. The M1 was for the M1903, the M2 for the M1917, the M7 for the M1 Garand and the M8 for the M1/M2 carbine. The M76 was introduced with the M14 in the 50s. The M7 was not issued until late 1943 and the development of the M8 had been held back until the M7 was ready. Prior to this American forces only used grenade launchers on bolt-action rifles.

The exterior of American grenade launchers have grooves or rings. These are graduations used in setting the range of a grenade. By varying how far down the tube the grenade is positioned pressure and launch velocity can be varied. When the launcher was used for high-angle fire some means of keeping the grenade at the desired graduation was needed. For the M1 (M1903) and M2 (M1917) launchers a separate clip was attached at the desired level. Several of these clips were packed with certain rifle grenade types. The M7 and M8 had a spring fitted near the launcher’s muzzle. This provided sufficient friction to keep the grenade in place until fired. Apparently these springs were very prone to breaking until the A2 modifications after the war.

If a grenade was fired from the semi-automatic Garand the bolt would unlock before the grenade was fully under way. This caused a drop in pressure and reduced grenade performance. The M7 included a mechanism to shut off the Garand’s gas system, keeping the breech closed. When fitted with a grenade launcher it was necessary to hand cycle the bolt after each shot. By the Korean war the M7A2/A3 launchers were in service. These had a modification so they only shut off the gas system when a grenade was being fired. It was no longer necessary to remove the launcher to have the rifle function semi-automatically. The M1/M2 carbine had a different mechanism and functioned semi-automatically with or without grenades.

Many armies teach soldiers to hold rifles with the butt underarm when firing grenades at low trajectories. The US Army manuals do not mention this and taught that grenade launchers could be fired from the shoulder. Helpfully, it does suggest the butt be well seated against the shoulder, the thumb held on the outside of the grip and the head well back from the sight. A body position where the body can move with the recoil was required. If prone the shoulder should not be used. Instead some means such as a rut in the earth be used. When firing from a foxhole the back wall of the trench could be used. 

For high-angle fire the weapon was fired with the butt against the ground. A rubber recoil pad was available for the Garand. The carbine was held on its side so that both the heel and toe of the butt were in contact with the ground. The rifle or carbine was held at 30, 45 or 60 degrees and range adjusted by how far the grenade was slid down the spigot. Maximum range was increased by use of the “M7 Auxiliary Cartridge” (aka “Vitamin Pill”). This was a booster charge in what resembled (and may have been) a .45 Long Colt casing. The cartridge was inserted in the muzzle of the launcher before a grenade was fitted. The “Guidebook for Marines, 1951” cautions the auxiliary cartridge should not be used when shoulder firing due to “a tremendous wallop”. Use in the carbine was only for emergencies since the stock was not considered strong enough. Used of the vitamin pill was discontinued around 1954.

The different grenades had different ballistic behaviors, so for each there was a table showing which angle and “ring position” was required for a given range. 

A rotatable grenade sight (M15) with a spirit level could be fitted to the side of the stock. Interestingly, later field manuals for the M79 detail how M15 sights can be fitted to that weapon.

All grenades were fired by blank cartridges. This could be fiddly for the Garand. A cartridge was loaded directly into the breech (risking “Garand thumb” ) or the weapon unloaded and reloaded with a clip of blanks. Using a clip-loading mechanism the Garand magazine could not simply be topped up with blanks.

Blank cartridges for grenade projection are sometimes called “Ballistite” after the powder composition used in some examples. The term “ballistic” may also be encountered.

Ammunition for the American grenade launchers included:

M9/M9A1 (1.23 lb) 48mm hollow-charge anti-tank grenade. In a later war North Vietnamese forces used these fired from M44 Mosin-Nagan carbines.

M17 anti-personnel grenade. (1.47 lb) Mk2 “pineapple” grenade body with M9 rifle grenade tail. Impact fused.

M19 Smoke WP (1.5 lb). Screening, marking, anti-personnel and incendiary.

M20 Smoke HC. Screening smoke.

M22 Smoke Signalling. (1.26 lb) Emit coloured smoke for a minute after impact. Green, red, violet or yellow.

M23 Smoke streamer (1.16 lb). Before firing a section of tape on the nose must be removed to expose an air intake. Ten yards after launch produces a stream of smoke along its trajectory and for at least 12 seconds after firing. Green, red, violet or yellow. Maximum altitude Rifle: 155 yd in 11 sec, 203 yd in 12.4 sec with booster. Carbine: 97 yd in 8.5 sec, 133 yd in 10 sec with booster.

Parachute Flare. White, red, amber or green.

Five-star flare. White, red, amber or green.

M1-series Projection Adaptor. Tail unit for the Mk.2 hand grenade. A clip on one of the claws held the safety lever in position when the pin was removed. Firing causes the clip to setback and release the lever. Could also be used with the M34 WP grenade. Later model could be used with the M26 hand grenade. 0.38 lb plus grenade weight. WW2 60mm mortar warheads could also be thrown with this projector, for half the usual range. Later models of fuse will probably not arm if used this way.

M2-series Projection Adaptor. Tail unit for cylindrical, flat-bottomed grenades such as smoke, thermite, tear gas or the Mk3 offensive grenade.

During the Korean War it became apparent that something more potent than the M9A1 was needed. The US Army adopted the 75mm Energa grenade as the M28. A longer version of the M7, the M7A3, was introduced. The M28 was replaced by the M31, a 1.56 lb 66mm grenade of American origin. Performance of the two models is effectively the same, both giving around 200mm of penetration. 

High Trajectory Ranges:

M9A1 Rifle: 255 yd or 365 with booster. Carbine: 185 yd or 235 with booster. In theory it was possible for a high-angle shot to hit the thinner upper armour of a tank. In practice, the low velocity and wind effects made this difficult.

M17 Rifle: 200 yd, 290 with booster. Carbine: 135 yd.

Mk2 Frag in M1 adapter: Rifle: 180 yd or 225 with booster. Carbine: 130 yd.

Chemical grenade in M2 adapter: Rifle: 146 yd or 192 yd with booster. Carbine: 95 yd, 124 yd with booster.

M19/M20 Smoke grenades: Rifle: 215 yd or 310 with booster. Carbine: 150 yd or 215 with booster.

Flat Trajectory Ranges (up to 10 degrees elevation):

M9A1 Rifle: 104 yd or 175 yd with booster at 10 degrees. 215/315 at 25 degrees. Carbine: 70 yd at 10 degrees, 149 yd at 25 degrees. Time of flight about 25 yd in ½ second, 50 yd in 1¼ second. Lead for a target at 15 mph at 50 yd is 8 yd.

Mk.2 hand grenade in M1 adapter. Rifle: 50 yd in one second, 80 yd in 1.7 sec. Carbine: 39 yd in one second, 48 yd in 1.3 sec.

M17 Impact Frag. Rifle: 74 yds, Carbine: 51 yd.

While American soldiers were provided with grenade launchers and a wide range of ammunition types, it was noted in Infantry School Quarterly Vol.45-46, April 1956 p.82. “Rifle: grenades have long been a neglected and misused weapon, primarily because of misinterpretation and lack of information on their use. They are, however, the only antitank weapons of the rifle company other than the 3.5-inch rocket launchers. Not only are rifle grenades the antitank weapon of the rifle squad, they are also the squad’s “mortar” for indirect firing at area targets.”

A report on weapons use in the Korean War found no accounts of rifle grenades being used by US troops, although it did note there were incidences when they would have been useful. In all the units interviewed troops has thrown their grenade launchers away. The same report notes that the CCF (Communist Chinese Forces) did use grenade launchers. One wonders how many of these were items discarded by American troops!

While ingenious, the “ring and angle” range system does seem rather involved for a squad-level weapon that was intended to be used in close proximity to the enemy. In the trenches of Korea, grenade launchers may have been more effective if grouped into sections at platoon-level. Notable is that may other models of spigot launcher have rings or graduations, but do not appear to have a means of holding the grenade in a set position. This would not be the only instance of a piece of design being copied without understanding of function.

By the Vietnam-era the heavy M31 grenade was out of favour. It was not likely to perform adequately with the weaker 5.56mm ammunition and recoil would be even worse with the lighter M16. The M72 LAW and M79 seemed more promising. As is often its wont, disillusionment with one weapon caused the US Army to ignore the entire field. Potentially useful other types of rifle grenade were not made available to soldiers. For example, no adequate smoke screening round for the M79/M203 has ever been issued.

Some armies have remained enthusiastic users of rifle grenades. These include the Israelis, French, South Africans and Rhodesians. Belgium, Italy and China manufacture a range of models.

The Rhodesians often issued Energa grenades to the point man of a patrol, giving him RPG-level firepower during an encounter without the problems of back-blast and the added weight of a launcher. In a four-man Fire-force “stick” the two riflemen might each carry one or two rifle grenades.

The Rhodesians issued two cartridges for grenade projection. The full-power load (440 yd) was for high-angle fire with the butt against the ground. The reduced charge was for short-range (165 yd) “underarm” firing. It was considered a good joke to trick a comrade into firing the full-power load underarm or from the shoulder. It was prudent to keep your fingers out of the trigger guard and your thumb away from the pistol grip when firing grenades. The recoil could break them.

Using rifle grenades in semi-automatic rifles had introduced new complications. Propellant gases could escape from the opening breech or via the gas regulator. For many designs it was necessary to close the gas port to the barrel so the bolt could not cycle. The weapon needed to be manually cocked between each shot. On some designs the grenade sights are connected to the gas port. Flipping up the sight automatically closes the gas supply. Often a grenade cannot be placed fully over the muzzle if the grenade sights are not raised. Reloading the weapon with blank rounds was often slower with semi-automatics. Most self-loaders are not designed so that a magazine can be topped up with loose rounds while in position. The magazine needed to be removed, the chamber cleared and a new magazine of blanks inserted and a blank round chambered.

The original reason for the spigot launcher was that rifle barrels had not been designed with grenade launching in mind. This was to eventually change, and by the late 70s the latest designs of rifle had foresights not mounted at the muzzle and 22mm flash-hinders that also served as grenade spigots. Although assumed to be a “NATO standard” the common 22mm dimension was arrived at without official intervention. The various manufacturers emulated each other and were influenced by the rifle-grenades already in service.

The separate spigot launcher remained in use for some weapons. When creating the M14 from the Garand, the separate M76 launcher was developed rather than designing the flashhinder as an integral launcher. Some FAL rifles had integral launchers, while others (such as the British L1A1 SLR) required an attachment. The position of the SKS and AKM’s foresight required an add-on launcher for those nations that used rifle-grenades with these weapons. Below is a Polish example of an AK. External diameter of the launcher is 20mm. Many Yugoslavian SKS have grenade launchers. The Hungarian AMP-69 does not have a detachable spigot. Instead, the whole rifle has been reconfigured for grenade launching. A buffered stock and sliding fore-end help mitigate the effects of recoil. The gas tube is fitted with a cut-out.

As integral launchers became commonplace on military rifles spigot attachments became obsolete. Rifle grenades had not finished evolving, however. That is a story for another post.

Grenade Launchers: Raining Rods

In my last blog I provided some details about the seldom considered subject of cup grenade launchers. I promised to give a similar treatment to spigot launchers. I had intended to include rod grenades in that post, but instead have chosen to give this subject their own post. Since very few movies have been set in the trenches of the Great War, rod grenades are perhaps even less familiar to most people than other types of rifle grenade. The First World War as a genre is rather neglected, yet has potential for survival/ horror scenarios, if nothing else. 

Rodded grenades were widely used during the First World War. The Germans entered the war with two models already adopted. German units were amply provided with these, so the grenades seem to have been in full-scale production. These proved to be a great and deadly nuisance to those they were used against. Around 1917, when cup dischargers became more common, German use of rodded designs declined. The British had no rod grenades in service at the start of the war so developed a variety of models. Development continued until the end of the war and rodded designs remained in British service after cup dischargers became common.

As the name suggests, the rod grenade is a rifle grenade fitted with a long rod. The rod is inserted in the barrel of a rifle, and the grenade projected by firing a blank cartridge. While you will see the cartridges used to propel grenades called “blanks” it should be understood these are not the same as blank ammunition used for war games or TV shows. Using a normal blank with a rifle grenade (of any sort) will not get the grenade very far.

Many of the problems with firing grenades from cup dischargers were also true for rod grenades. Recoil damaged the furniture of the gun and affected the sights. Projectile flight was very susceptible to the influence of wind and other elements. Rodded grenades had some additional problems. The rod was effectively a barrel blockage so many rifles used for launching would succumb to bulged or burst barrels. Service rifles of the period were between 6.5mm and 8mm in calibre, necessitating that a rod be narrow. This, in turn, required the rod to be made of a relatively strong material if it was to avoid being easily bent or damaged. Damage to the rifling could occur, as could jammed rods.

Many of the practices later seen with cup dischargers had been developed for rodded grenades. Dedicated rifles, not used for normal shooting, were used as launchers and weapons were fired with their butt against the ground, never from the shoulder. In the trenches launching rifles were often mounted in firing racks. Sometimes these were arranged to create a battery of several weapons, and a means to fire all at once improvised. Trench mortars, machine gun nests and suspected sniper positions were often targeted. While mainly used like short-range mortars, grenade launchers were also used in more mobile roles. Some manuals and books of the time recommend that trench bombing parties included rifle grenades as well as hand grenades.

In British service a rod could be between 5½ and 17½ inches long, certain lengths being preferred for different models of grenade. Rod length had an influence on gas pressure within the barrel, and hence launch velocity and range. Longer rods increased recoil, while shorter rods caused the barrel to split sooner due to a longer path for reflected pressure wave effects. Incidentally, rod grenades required a different type of blank cartridge to cup dischargers. The lower volume in the barrel required a fast-burning, high pressure load. Some designs had a copper cup or plug at the base that was intended to serve as a gas seal. In practice this may fail to expand or fracture, causing range discrepancies. The length of the rod made the grenades awkward to carry in action. A bent rod could not be used, and a rod should be dry and clean before being inserted in a barrel, which could be a problem on the Western front. 

Range of a rod grenade was determined by barrel angle. German grenades also used attached discs to increase drag. In summer 1917 the British adopted an additional technique. It was found a rubber ring could be added to the rod to limit how far it inserted down the barrel and thus vary the velocity. The downside was it became more likely for an unwieldy 15 inch rod to be fitted.

Explosive rod grenades were either time or impact-fused. Ideally, the time fuse exploded as the grenade arrived at the target. If it was late it might burst in mid-air with little or no effect. An early round might bury itself in mud and thus throw few fragments. Impact designs had their own problems. Impact with soft mud or snow might fail to detonate the grenade and bury it. This is in fact a problem still encountered with modern grenade launcher rounds. Many Great War impact designs were overly sensitive and might detonate prematurely in mid-air. Worse, some would detonate on firing! The chance of the No.22 detonating in the launcher is reported as high as 2%! Many grenadiers mounted their launcher on a rack and fired it with a lanyard from behind cover. One presumes the No.22 was not suited to mobile operations such as trench-bombing raids.

British platoons were authorized eight rifle grenadiers. 

Eventually, a number of relatively useful designs saw widescale use with the British Army. The No.22 “Newton Pippin” was an impact-fused model. Its cone-like shape ensured that it arrived nose first. The fuse was noted for its “instantaneous” action. It would detonate on the surface of mud rather than within it and creating a crater. Fired against masses of barbed wire it would damage the wire, something much larger artillery shells often failed to do. Consequently, the fuse was adapted to use with mortar rounds for use against wire obstacles. At 1 to 1.63 lb, the No.22 was relatively light and could be launched at around 67 yd/s to 300 yd. It used a 15 inch rod with a copper gas seal. Depending on how the gas seal behaved maximum range might be as low as 220 yd or up to 350 yds. 

The No.20 (above) can be used for a more conventional British impact-fused rod grenade and to represent later evolutions such as the No.24 and 35. Weight 1.38 lb, 10 inch rod, 250 yds. For the earlier No.3 reduce range to 185 yd.

The No.34 “British Egg” hand grenade mentioned in the cup discharger blog could also be used as a rodded grenade. The only modification needed was to screw a rod to the grenade. As with cup launching, there was no need to strike the cap. If the safety pin had been removed the acceleration of launch was enough to shear the wire and start the seven second fuse.

The same igniter was used in the No.27 rifle grenade, a rodded WP grenade. Rod launch was used for smoke and signalling grenades as well as anti-personnel. Rodded grenades were used to pass written messages between positions, although some of these message carriers may have been grenades emptied of fuse and explosive. 

The No.23 version (1.53 lb) of the Mills bomb introduced a number of improvements over the original No.5, one of which was the facility to attach a rod to the base-plate. A 5½ inch rod is commonly illustrated, although one reference I have gives a maximum range of 160 yd with a 10 inch rod and 80 yds with the 5½ inch. No mention of the seven second fuse is made in references on the rodded Mills bomb. Interestingly, using the No.23 as a rifle grenade required a special muzzle fitting. This was held in place by a fixed bayonet and is a ring that holds the safety lever down while the grenade is loaded and the safety pin removed. When fired the grenade leaves the ring and the lever flies free.

German rod grenades of 1913 and 1914 were impact/ percussion fused designs of 2 lb weigh. Range was 350 yd for the 1913 and 380 yd for the 1914. Having entered service before the war, large numbers were available to German units. There were no safety pins, the designs being armed by the action of firing. They might also become live if dropped, especially on the tail rod. Live grenades might detonate when fired. Both models used 18 inch rods with a gas check. A tin disc could be fitted to the nose of the 1913 for firing at ranges of less than 200 yd. The 1914 had a saucer that was screwed between the grenade and the rod. Convex side forward this halved the range, concave side forward it quartered it.

The Germans were amply provided with rod grenades and made frequent use of them. At the start of the war they also enjoyed an advantage in trench mortars. The British soldiers were subjected to rains of bombs and grenades with no weapon that could counter them nor equivalent of their own.

Once they had their own models, the British also used rod grenades in considerable numbers. In July 1916 two reinforced companies from the Royal Welch Fusiliers expended thousands within a few hours. In August 1915 Field Marshal French (British Army) has asked to be supplied with 112,000 rifle grenades per week (actual supply raised to 19,000).

Allegedly, American soldiers with trap or skeet-shooting experience were provided with M97 Trench guns and placed in positions where they could fire on incoming rifle grenades.

There are very few examples of rodded grenades after the war. Some “anarchist”manuals describe shotguns (which may themselves be home-made) converted to grenade launch by using projectiles with dowel rods. The larger bore and other characteristics of shotguns permit construction methods different to the First World War grenades. This may be easier to improvise or manufacture than a cup discharger.

A company called Precision Ordinance produces the M444, a very long, narrow stun grenade that can be fitted down and launched to about 100 yd from a 12g shotgun barrel. It can also be pushed or thrown through small holes, such as those made by a shotgun damage.

Some mortars and artillery have used muzzle-loaded projectiles with rods that passed down the barrel. The German 15cm heavy infantry gun (s.IG33) used a 200 lb Steilgranate 42 “stick bomb” with stabilizing fins that remained outside the barrel. This projected a warhead containing 60 lb of explosive to 1,100 yd and was used against strongpoints and wire obstacles. Similar in design was the Steilgranate 41 fired by the 37mm PAK 36 anti-tank gun. This was a 19 lb shaped-charge projectile with 180mm penetration. Maximum range was 880 yd, although 330 yd was a more likely engagement range. The Japanese Type 98 50mm mortar (not to be confused with the Type 89 50mm “knee mortar”) is another example. 

GURPS High-Tech 3e describes TL4 rodded grenades. I do not know if there is a historical precedent for these. The greater bore-size of a musket allows the rod to be tube of powder. p.46: “Another kind of explosive is a rodded grenade. It can be fired from any smooth-bore shoulder gun. The rod is hollow, and filled with an incendiary compound to serve as a fuse. The rod is fitted down the barrel, and the gun fired - with a blank charge, of course! If all goes well, the powder charge both propels and ignites the grenade...Weapon stats for rodded or cup-launched grenades are different than for the same weapon with ball. Damage, as a projectile, is 1d. Explosive damage is normal for a TL4/5 grenade. Half-damage range is meaningless for a launched grenade; maximum range is 100. Accuracy is 2; Snap Shot is 10...A [TL4] rodded grenade can be picked up and thrown, if it does not explode - but the fuse cannot be extinguished. On a misfire of the launching weapon, the fuse of a rodded grenade does not ignite.”